By Dr Ranga Ranjan Das
Manipur, the Land of Jewels, is the home of diverse groups with diverse cultures and heritage. These groups have maintained their tradition since time immemorial. Lamkang is one of the oldest nineteen Naga tribes living in Manipur. They are mainly concentrated in the southern part of Manipur, in the Chandel district. According to the 2001 census, the population of Lamkang in Manipur was 4524. As per the census record of 2011, the population of Lamkang in Manipur was 7770. They have been recognized as a scheduled tribe by the government of India since 1951. According to another scholar (Kameih & Kshatriya, 2018), they were recognized by the government of India in 1956. They speak the Lamkang dialect, which belongs to the Tibeto-Burman group of languages while communicating within the tribe, and other languages such as Manipuri, Nagamese, English, and Hindi interact with people outside their tribe1. It was found that they are mostly settled in 33 villages in the Chandel district. The villages are Keithelmanbi (Phantukhudam), New Chayang, Ankhel Chayang, Komsen, Charangching Khullen, Betuk, Sektaikarong, New Lamkang Khunthak, Old Lamkang Khuntak, Deeringkhu, Kurnuching, Nungkangching, Leingangching, Purum Pantha, Charangching Khunou, Charangching Khunkha, Lamkang Khunou, Challong, Angbrasu, Kongpe, Kotal Khutun, Kseng Khupi, Mantri Pantha, Damjol, Praolon, Daampi, Thamlapokpi, Thamlakhurem, Lungkharlown, Leipumtampak, Laitla, Lamkang Khunjai and Cheergkhir.
It is revealed that the Lamkang migrated and settled in their present location since the turn of the first century of the common when Poireiton migrated to Manipur, as was recorded in Poireiton Khunthokpa (Yaima, 1967, cited by Kameih and Kshatriya 2018). They were also briefly mentioned in the Manipuri kings’ chronicles ‘Cheitharon Kumbaba’ as ‘Hiroi Lamkang’2. Like other Naga groups, their proper history of origin and migration is not known. Oral history testifies to many such facts and circumstances without written records. As per their legend, “they emerged from a cave somewhere in the east. A huge tiger was waiting at the entrance of the cave to devour them. It was Benglam who, by adopting ingenuity, tricked the tiger with his bow and arrow, enabling his people’s smooth passage. Even today, a proverb in Lamkang called Benglampa jalthurthu loosely translated as ‘Benglam’s style of pulling out arrow’. After coming out from the cave, they first settled in Khurpii village. They further spread to Kokpii, Pheidul, Damdul, and Arhong villages. They migrated from somewhere in the east (Sankhil Shelmi, 2010, cited by Anjana Sankhil Lamkang).
Scholars have diverse opinions about the name ‘Lamkang’. They reveal that as outsiders gave it, Lamkang is not their original name. According to some scholars, they were called ksenpa (red man) because they used red shawl mixed with black strips (Dilbung 2000: 3). Some opines that a Meitei king’s subject gave the name. As per narration, once, a Meitei subject passed through a Lamkang country and met a Lamkang man who cleared the road with his dao. The Meitei person asked question to the man who was working. The man replied that he was clearing the road (lam) with his dao (kang). So, the term Lamkang came (Dilbung William, 2007, cited by Anjana Sankhil Lamkang). On the other hand, another scholar said that during that period, Lamkang could not speak Meiteilon or Manipuri language (Shelmi Sankhil, 2010). Some reveal that the name came due to their habitation. They used to live in dry land on top of hills. Lam means ‘land’, and ‘kang’ means dry. However, they prefer to call themselves Ksen. The Anal, another group, address them as Asin, a local version of Ksen. However, to the majority of outsiders, they are officially recognized as Lamkang.
Agriculture is the leading economy among the Lamkangs. They cultivate both shifting and wetlands. Earlier, they emphasized shifting cultivation in the hilly territory. After their settlement in the foothill region, they adopted wet rice cultivation. By availing of educational facilities within and outside the state, the people also had the chance to exploit other economic options. Many are taking up trade, commerce, and service in the government and private sectors within and outside the state.
In general, cultivation is their primary economic practice. Earlier, they had cultivated land immediately for their houses. Later on, they felt that the process involved in jhum was dangerous due to the involvement of fire for dried leaves and branches of the trees. The site of cultivation is shifted away from the residential plot. In the village context, every family has its own plot for cultivation. They cultivate cereals and grains such as till, maize, barley, millets, pumpkin, ash guards, ginger, jam, cucumbers, sweet potatoes, saffron, bananas, beans, and paddy. They also used to grow cotton and jute as cash crops. Cotton is used for weaving blankets and loincloths. They also use tree cottons collected from the trees in the forest. Cotton is also used to make mattresses and pillows. They use the jute to make mats (Dilbung, 2000, p. 19).
The male and female folk judiciously utilize their free period. Men used to be busy mending their houses, weaving bamboo and cane baskets, nets, and mats. The women were busy spinning threads for weaving. They weave beautiful cotton blankets, shawls, and lungis. The man also prepares various types and shapes of baskets for daily use. Locally, they are known as phaipek, borthroo, lup, lubu, khumyul, dap, tuhu, krang, shangphai, ningnei, leilun, phak, tongbor, bor, ngabor, lwung, troo, shep, etc. They are also involved in making certain wooden craft items such as tirtlim (weaving stick), phane (cotton yarn for taking out cotton seeds), tareng (spinner), payai, shum (for pounding paddy), shurel (pounding stick), phan (low wooden chair), chouki (wooden chair), etc (ibid 2000:20).
Earlier, the Lamkang people were animistic. With the advent of Christianity in Lamkang-dominated areas in the early 1920s, their animistic beliefs and practices started disappearing. All of them are following Christianity (Kameih & Kshatriya, 2018). Prior to the advent of Christianity, they believed in the existence of soul and spirit in almost every being. They had the concept of a supreme being known as Kuruwng, who was considered benevolent and the creator of the universe. They followed various rites and rituals. It became obsolete later on. They follow two denominations of Christianity: Baptist and Roman Catholic3.
Dilbung (2000: 42-43) found an interesting feature of indigenous belief system. It notes: “They did not worship spirit but only appeased them. Shulbur was a clandestine spirit. Shulbur meant burrow or the cage where the spirit was kept. Every clan had its own clandestine spirit. Every family kept the spirit at the back of their houses. They need to appease the family so that they can stay safe from sickness. The village priest performed occasional rites and rituals for the family and blessed the family by sprinkling holy water over the family members with chanting. Leaves of six different trees are used such as sko, thruve, dingpirsi, arji, thlingam and rupi (different trees). The water comprises goat, dog, chicken, bison, pig, and aluminium powder bones. The meaning behind the usage of six different types of leaves and six ingredients dissolved in water is unknown. It is a mystery. It must have been the type of mixture the spirit demanded through the priest. The priest sprinkled the solution to the people saying: Kuroo kurroo ku khu ngo, kidi ngo khorpi ngo, kokpi ngo, kiyoli ngo, ngayoli ngo, chipi ngo, chibang ngi ngo, ri ngi ngo, arlung ngi ngo, dulphei yi ngo, pamyolli ngo……There is no meaning as such. They were the names of all those villages where they had been living once upon a time. The priest called the spirits of all those villages of their migration to come and bless them. Then he concluded the invocation by uttering: Atiyo reseting resetingler, sangting klong ethasa, atiyo ravati revatile seting klong thasa”. Then he commanded the bundle of leaves to untie itself: “Aya pnang pakanpa nang karkhek karkhek, aya pnang pur phukpa kurphuk kurphuk” (you the rope, untie, untie and loosen yourself”). The meaning was known only to the priest. The bundle of leaves was then hung on the burrow/cage of the spirit. He then fed the spirit by pouring some wine on the spirit”.
Like other groups, the Lamkang has its own ethnic attire and ornaments, mostly visible in festivals and dance performances. The new generation generally adjusted to modern outfits. Dance attire and ornaments for women are interesting. It comprises black thread to be tied on the ankle, another decorated thread known as shaisang, a bangle, ivory on arms, different types of necklaces made of sea shells known as worjari and kep, designed wrapper for lower parts known as diphwn, a unique tie for elbow known as chwei, dressed hair attach with a feather of porcupine decorated with wings of a flying insect called thlumthler, white blouse. These items are costly. It is commonly not available. Male folk also possess their own dress items for performing dances. It includes white socks, shaisang on the white socks, decorated loin cloth, a short necklace, a long necklace (arlow), teeth of a pig on his left arm,a sea shell (wori) on his right arm with a tail of an animal, a white turban, a feature of bird (pwlrang), and a knife in its cupboard (Dilbung, 2000, p. 39).
The village’s major agricultural festival is called Kumrem Purtem/ Chanao Tongba. This festival is related to harvesting. It is a celebration in thanks to their bountiful harvest. It is also considered as the tasting of new food/harvest. In Chandel, they have a holiday for this festival on the 23rd of October. The villagers also celebrate Women’s Day, St. Thomas Day, etc.
Artefacts are the main component of tangible heritage. Artificial items are referred to as artefacts. It is an important part of material culture. Lamkang uses different types of baskets: tuhu (flat tray made of cane for cleaning rice), leilun (bamboo basket for storing rice and other things), karaang (bamboo basket used for storing dry fish/meat), and borr (a bamboo basket with a headband used for carrying things on the back). The older generation knows about making diverse basketry items, wood, and bamboo crafts. The youth are not interested in learning, which is becoming a dying art. Plastic, steel, and aluminium items have replaced bamboo, cane, and wood. The villagers go for fishing. Earlier, they knew how to prepare fishing nets on their own. The material was bought from the market, and they would weave it themselves. The size would vary according to the convenience of the user. This fishing net is called lensuk. Nowadays, they use readymade fishing nets.
The Lamkangis a patrilineal society where descent, inheritance, and succession are traced through the male line. The social structure of their society is interesting. The concept of moiety and clan is found among them. Marriage between the members of one moiety is prohibited. It is reported that earlier Lamkang tribe was divided into two moiety: Langkhin and Khurthuw. They were an exogamous group, and marriage within one’s moiety was strictly prohibited. There are oral narratives associated with the creation of the moiety. Khurthuw came into being from the bowel/hole of the earth. So, insects or animals that came from the earth’s bowels were considered taboo for consumption by members of Khurthuw. Langkhin were believed to be the children/descendants of the sun. As per oral narratives, the sun laid its egg on top of a bamboo tree leaf, and the egg, in due time, was hatched and gave birth to the descendants of Langkhin. Hence, clans from Langkhins avoided exposure to the sun for a long time. In the course of time, the two moieties further split into four exogamous phratries: Suwngnem-Sankhil, Dilbung Khular, Edar, and Khowl. The first phratry had Suwngnem and Sankhil as its prominent clan with several lineages, the second as Dilbung and Khular; Edarhas three clans-Tholung, Jangvei, and Shilshi, while Khowlhas Leivon, Kangten and Surte as its composite clan4.
The Lamkang peacefully live amid nature, always maintaining a symbiotic relationship. They have a rich treasure of intangible heritage in the form of oral literature embedded in creation myths, folktales, and legends. The systematic study of Lamkang society will help us explore diverse aspects of socio-cultural life and heritage.
End Notes
1. Lamkang, Anjana Sankhil, ‘A brief account of the Lamkang Naga tribe: An Insider’s view’,https://www.scribd.com/doc/109805873/A-Brief-Account-of -the-Lamkang-Naga-Tribe
2. ibid
3. ibid
4. ibid
References
Kameih, Gangaina and Gautam K. Kshatriya (2018). ‘Determinants of demographic characteristics of the Lamkang tribe, Manipur’, Homo, Vol 69, Issue 5, September 2018, pp 273-279
Dilbung, AvinceA. (2000).A critique tothe Mythology of Lamkang tribe of Manipur, Archbishop’s House, Mantri pukhri, Imphal, Manipur
Dilbung, W. (2007), The origin and migration of Lamkang tribe of Manipur, Unpublished M.A
Dissertation, Department of History, Manipur University, Imphal, Manipur
Lamkang, Anjana Sankhil, ‘A brief account of the Lamkang Naga tribe: An Insider’s view’, unpublished document, a source at end note no 1
Sankhil, Shelmi (2010), Lamkang identity: Between history and ethnography, Unpublished Dissertation, Department of English, University of Delhi
